Chimurenga Music: Thomas Mapfumo and the Sound of Struggle

In the 1970s, in what was then Rhodesia, a band would take the stage in a crowded beer hall in Salisbury (now Harare). The guitars began a fast, cycling pattern of notes that sounded strangely familiar to the audience. It was not like Western rock, or like the Congolese rumba popular across the region. It sounded like the mbira, the ancient thumb piano of the Shona people, translated onto electric guitars. Then the singer began in Shona, with lyrics full of proverbs and hidden meanings that the white government struggled to understand. The singer was Thomas Mapfumo, and the music became known as chimurenga.

What does chimurenga mean?

Chimurenga is a Shona word usually translated as "struggle" or "revolutionary struggle". It is used to describe Zimbabwe's wars of resistance:

• The First Chimurenga (1896–1897), when the Shona and Ndebele rose against British colonial rule. Spirit mediums such as Mbuya Nehanda and Sekuru Kaguvi played leading roles; both were executed.
• The Second Chimurenga, the liberation war of the 1960s and 1970s, which led to Zimbabwe's independence in 1980.

Mapfumo's music took its name from this second struggle.

Mbira on the guitar

The heart of chimurenga music is the mbira, the instrument of metal keys mounted on a wooden board, played in Shona ceremonies to call on the ancestors, as described in our story on the mbira.

In the early 1970s, Mapfumo and his guitarists, especially Jonah Sithole, began adapting mbira patterns for electric guitar. They imitated the mbira's interlocking, cycling melodies and its buzzing sound, while the bass and drums took on the role of the hosho (shakers) and hand-clapping. They also drew on traditional drum rhythms and songs.

At the time, many Zimbabwean bands played copies of Western rock and pop or Congolese music. Mapfumo's decision to play Shona music, in the Shona language, was a statement of cultural pride.

Songs of the war

As the liberation war intensified in the 1970s, Mapfumo's songs began to carry political messages. Using proverbs, metaphors and traditional imagery, he sang about the suffering of rural people, the war and the hope for freedom. Many listeners understood these songs as support for the guerrilla fighters.

Songs such as "Hokoyo!" ("Watch out!") and "Tumirai Vana Kuhondo" ("Send the children to war") were seen as subversive. The Rhodesian government banned some of his records from the radio, and in 1979, Mapfumo was detained for several months without charge. He was released after performing at a rally for a politician linked to the government, an episode that later caused controversy.

Independence and after

When Zimbabwe became independent in 1980, Mapfumo was celebrated as a hero. He performed at independence celebrations, and his band, the Blacks Unlimited, became one of the most popular in the country. The music of the liberation war, including Mapfumo's songs and the music of other artists such as Oliver Mtukudzi, became part of Zimbabwe's national identity.

But Mapfumo soon turned his songs against new targets: corruption, inequality and the failures of the government of Robert Mugabe. In songs such as "Corruption" (1989) and, later, "Mamvemve" ("Tatters"), he criticised the country's leaders. His music was again restricted on the radio.

Exile

In 2000, amid political tensions and threats, Mapfumo moved with his family to Eugene, Oregon, in the United States. From exile, he continued to record and tour, and to criticise the government. He returned to Zimbabwe to perform in 2018, after Mugabe's fall from power, to huge crowds.

Mapfumo, often called "the Lion of Zimbabwe" (Mukanya), has released dozens of albums. The music writer Banning Eyre, who played with his band, wrote a detailed biography, Lion Songs.

The Shona language and proverbs

Much of chimurenga music's power comes from the Shona language and its rich tradition of proverbs and indirect speech. As we described in our story on Shona, proverbs allow speakers to say serious things in subtle ways, which made them perfect for songs that needed to avoid censorship.

Legacy

Chimurenga music influenced many Zimbabwean musicians and inspired a broader movement of guitar-based music rooted in local traditions. It also became part of the world music scene in the 1980s and 1990s, introducing international audiences to Zimbabwean music. Today, mbira-inspired guitar is a recognisable sound of Zimbabwean popular music.

Why it matters

Chimurenga music shows how a musician can take an ancient tradition and turn it into a powerful modern voice. Thomas Mapfumo's guitars spoke the language of the mbira, and his songs spoke for people fighting for freedom, and later for those disappointed by what freedom brought. His career is a reminder that music can be both a celebration of culture and a form of resistance.

Further reading

• Banning Eyre, Lion Songs: Thomas Mapfumo and the Music That Made Zimbabwe (Duke University Press, 2015)
• Thomas Turino, Nationalists, Cosmopolitans, and Popular Music in Zimbabwe (University of Chicago Press, 2000)
• Alec J.C. Pongweni, Songs That Won the Liberation War (College Press, 1982)